Beach sand and the potential for infectious disease transmission: observations and recommendations

TY - JOUR

T1 - Beach sand and the potential for infectious disease transmission: observations and recommendations

AU - Solo-Gabriele, Helena M.

AU - Harwood, Valerie J.

AU - Kay, David

AU - Fujioka, Roger S.

AU - Sadowsky, Michael J.

AU - Whitman, Richard L.

AU - Wither, Andrew

AU - Canica, Manuela

AU - Da Fonseca, Rita Carvalho

AU - Duarte, Aida

AU - Edge, Thomas A.

AU - Gargate, Maria J.

AU - Gunde-Cimerman, Nina

AU - Hagen, Ferry

AU - Mclellan, Sandra L.

AU - Da Silva, Alexandra Nogueira

AU - Babic, Monika Novak

AU - Prada, Susana

AU - Rodrigues, Raquel

AU - Romao, Daniela

AU - Sabino, Raquel

AU - Samson, Robert A.

AU - Segal, Esther

AU - Staley, Christopher

AU - Taylor, Huw D.

AU - Verissimo, Cristina

AU - Viegas, Carla

AU - Barroso, Helena

AU - Brandao, Joao C.

PY - 2016/2

Y1 - 2016/2

N2 - Recent studies suggest that sand can serve as a vehicle for exposure of humans to pathogens at beach sites, resulting in increased health risks. Sampling for microorganisms in sand should therefore be considered for inclusion in regulatory programmes aimed at protecting recreational beach users from infectious disease. Here, we review the literature on pathogen levels in beach sand, and their potential for affecting human health. In an effort to provide specific recommendations for sand sampling programmes, we outline published guidelines for beach monitoring programmes, which are currently focused exclusively on measuring microbial levels in water. We also provide background on spatial distribution and temporal characteristics of microbes in sand, as these factors influence sampling programmes. First steps toward establishing a sand sampling programme include identifying appropriate beach sites and use of initial sanitary assessments to refine site selection. A tiered approach is recommended for monitoring. This approach would include the analysis of samples from many sites for faecal indicator organisms and other conventional analytes, while testing for specific pathogens and unconventional indicators is reserved for high-risk sites. Given the diversity of microbes found in sand, studies are urgently needed to identify the most significant aetiological agent of disease and to relate microbial measurements in sand to human health risk.

AB - Recent studies suggest that sand can serve as a vehicle for exposure of humans to pathogens at beach sites, resulting in increased health risks. Sampling for microorganisms in sand should therefore be considered for inclusion in regulatory programmes aimed at protecting recreational beach users from infectious disease. Here, we review the literature on pathogen levels in beach sand, and their potential for affecting human health. In an effort to provide specific recommendations for sand sampling programmes, we outline published guidelines for beach monitoring programmes, which are currently focused exclusively on measuring microbial levels in water. We also provide background on spatial distribution and temporal characteristics of microbes in sand, as these factors influence sampling programmes. First steps toward establishing a sand sampling programme include identifying appropriate beach sites and use of initial sanitary assessments to refine site selection. A tiered approach is recommended for monitoring. This approach would include the analysis of samples from many sites for faecal indicator organisms and other conventional analytes, while testing for specific pathogens and unconventional indicators is reserved for high-risk sites. Given the diversity of microbes found in sand, studies are urgently needed to identify the most significant aetiological agent of disease and to relate microbial measurements in sand to human health risk.

KW - Beach sand

KW - microbes

KW - bacteria

KW - fungi

U2 - 10.1017/S0025315415000843

DO - 10.1017/S0025315415000843

M3 - Article

SN - 0025-3154

VL - 96

SP - 101

EP - 120

JO - Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

JF - Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

IS - 1

ER -